// Written in the D programming language.

/**
This module is a port of a growing fragment of the $(D_PARAM numeric)
header in Alexander Stepanov's $(LINK2 http://sgi.com/tech/stl,
Standard Template Library), with a few additions.

Macros:

WIKI = Phobos/StdNumeric

Authors:

$(WEB erdani.org, Andrei Alexandrescu), Don Clugston
*/

module std.numeric;
import std.algorithm;
import std.array;
import std.bitmanip;
import std.typecons;
import std.math;
import std.traits;
import std.contracts;
import std.random;
import std.string;
import std.range;
import std.c.stdlib;
import std.functional;
import std.typetuple;
version(unittest)
{
    import std.stdio;
    import std.conv;
}

/**
Flags for custom floating-point formats. In the case of $(LUCKY
IEEE754) types, all of these flags are applied. 
 */
private enum CustomFloatFlags
{
/**
Store values in normalized form by default, i.e. the fraction is
assumed to be $(D 1.nnnn), not $(D 0.nnnn). Normalization is the
default in all $(LUCKY IEE754) types. If a floating-point type is
defined to store only numbers inside $(D (-1, 1)), normalization may
not be useful.
 */ 
    storeNormalized = 1,
/**
Allow denormalized values (a la $(LUCKY IEEE754 denormalized)).
If this flag is on, a value with an exponent
containing all bits zero is considered to contain a denormalized
value.
 */ 
    allowDenorm = 2,
/**
Support for infinity values (a la $(LUCKY IEEE754 _infinity)). If this
flag is on, a value with an exponent containing all bits one and
fraction zero is assumed to contain a (valid) allowDenormalized value. The sign,
if applicable, is decided by the sign bit.
 */ 
        infinity = 4,
/**
Support for NaN (Not a Number) values (a la $(LUCKY IEEE754 Not a Number)).
If this flag is on, a value with an exponent containing all
bits one and a nonzero fraction is considered to contain a
allowDenormalized value.
 */ 
        nan = 8,
/**
Include _all of the above options.
 */
        all = storeNormalized | allowDenorm | infinity | nan
        }

/**
Allows user code to define custom floating-point formats. These
formats are for storage only; to do operations on custom
floating-point types, one must extract the value into a $(D float) or
$(D double). After the operation is completed the result can be
deposited in a custom floating-point value by using its assignment
operator.

Example:
----
// Define a 16-bit floating point type
alias CustomFloat!(1, 5, 10) HalfFloat;
auto x = HalfFloat(0.125);
assert(halfFloat.get!float == 0.125);
----
 */
struct CustomFloat(
    bool signBit,       // allocate a sign bit? (true for float)
    uint fractionBits,  // fraction bits (23 for float)
    uint exponentBits,  // exponent bits (8 for float)
    uint bias = (1u << (exponentBits - 1)) - 1, // bias (127 for float)
    CustomFloatFlags flags = CustomFloatFlags.all)
{
    alias CustomFloatFlags Flags;
    private enum totalSize = signBit + fractionBits + exponentBits;
    static assert(totalSize % 8 == 0);
    private mixin(bitfields!(
                bool, "sign", signBit,
                uint, "fraction", fractionBits,
                uint, "exponent", exponentBits));
    
/**
Initialize from a $(D float).
 */
    this(float input) { this = input; }
/**
Initialize from a $(D double).
 */
    this(double input) { this = input; }
/**
Assigns from either a $(D float) or a $(D double).
 */ 
    void opAssign(F)(F input) if (staticIndexOf!(Unqual!F, float, double) >= 0)
    {
        static if (is(Unqual!F == float))
            auto value = FloatRep(input);
        else
            auto value = DoubleRep(input);
        // Assign the sign bit
        static if (!signBit) enforce(!value.sign);
        else sign = value.sign;

        // Assign the exponent and fraction
        auto e = value.exponent;
        if (e == 0)
        {
            // denormalized source value
            static if (flags & Flags.allowDenorm)
            {
                exponent = 0;
                fraction = cast(typeof(fraction_max)) value.fraction;
            }
            else
            {
                assert(0);
            }
        }
        else if (e == value.exponent_max)
        {
            // infinity or NaN
            if (value.fraction == 0)
                // Infinity
                static if (flags & Flags.infinity)
                {
                    fraction = 0;
                    exponent = exponent_max;
                }
                else
                {
                    assert(0);
                }
            else
            {
                // NaN
                static if (flags & Flags.nan)
                {
                    fraction = cast(typeof(fraction())) value.fraction;
                    exponent = exponent_max;
                }
                else
                {
                    assert(0);
                }
            }
        }
        else
        {
            // normal value
            exponent = cast(typeof(exponent_max))
                (value.exponent + (bias - value.bias));
            static if (fractionBits >= value.fractionBits)
            {
                fraction = cast(typeof(fraction_max))
                    (value.fraction << (fractionBits - value.fractionBits));
            }
            else
            {
                fraction = cast(typeof(fraction_max))
                    (value.fraction >> (value.fractionBits - fractionBits));
            }
        }
    }

/**
Fetches the stored value either as a $(D float) or $(D double).
 */
    F get(F)()
    {
        static if (is(Unqual!F == float))
            FloatRep result = void;
        else
            DoubleRep result = void;
        static if (signBit) result.sign = sign;
        else result.sign = 0;
        auto e = exponent;
        if (e == 0)
        {
            // denormalized value
            result.exponent = 0;
            result.fraction = fraction;
        }
        else if (e == exponent_max)
        {
            // infinity or NaN
        }
        else
        {
            // normal value
            result.exponent = cast(typeof(result.exponent_max))
                (exponent + (result.bias - bias));
            static if (fractionBits <= result.fractionBits)
            {
                alias Select!(result.fractionBits >= 32, ulong, uint) S;
                result.fraction = cast(typeof(result.fraction_max))
                    (cast(S) fraction << (result.fractionBits - fractionBits));
            }
            else
            {
                result.fraction = cast(typeof(result.fraction()))
                    (fraction >> (fractionBits - result.fractionBits));
            }
        }
        return result.value;
    }
}

unittest
{
    alias TypeTuple!(
        CustomFloat!(1, 5, 10),
        CustomFloat!(0, 5, 11),
        CustomFloat!(0, 1, 15)
        ) FPTypes;
    foreach (F; FPTypes)
    {
        auto x = F(0.125);
        assert(x.get!float == 0.125F);
        assert(x.get!double == 0.125);
    }
}

/**
Defines the fastest type to use when storing temporaries of a
calculation intended to ultimately yield a result of type $(D F)
(where $(D F) must be one of $(D float), $(D double), or $(D
real)). When doing a multi-step computation, you may want to store
intermediate results as $(D FPTemporary!F).

Example:
----
// Average numbers in an array
double avg(in double[] a)
{
    if (a.length == 0) return 0;
    FPTemporary!double result = 0;
    foreach (e; a) result += e;
    return result / a.length;
}
----

The necessity of $(D FPTemporary) stems from the optimized
floating-point operations and registers present in virtually all
processors. When adding numbers in the example above, the addition may
in fact be done in $(D real) precision internally. In that case,
storing the intermediate $(D result) in $(D double format) is not only
less precise, it is also (surprisingly) slower, because a conversion
from $(D real) to $(D double) is performed every pass through the
loop. This being a lose-lose situation, $(D FPTemporary!F) has been
defined as the $(I fastest) type to use for calculations at precision
$(D F). There is no need to define a type for the $(I most accurate)
calculations, as that is always $(D real).

Finally, there is no guarantee that using $(D FPTemporary!F) will
always be fastest, as the speed of floating-point calculations depends
on very many factors.
 */
template FPTemporary(F) if (isFloatingPoint!F)
{
    alias real FPTemporary;
}

/**
Implements the $(WEB tinyurl.com/2zb9yr, secant method) for finding a
root of the function $(D fun) starting from points $(D [xn_1, x_n])
(ideally close to the root). $(D Num) may be $(D float), $(D double),
or $(D real).

Example:

----
float f(float x) {
    return cos(x) - x*x*x;
}
auto x = secantMethod!(f)(0f, 1f);
assert(approxEqual(x, 0.865474));
----
*/
template secantMethod(alias fun)
{
    Num secantMethod(Num)(Num xn_1, Num xn) {
        auto fxn = unaryFun!(fun)(xn_1), d = xn_1 - xn;
        typeof(fxn) fxn_1;
        xn = xn_1;
        while (!approxEqual(d, 0) && isfinite(d)) {
            xn_1 = xn;
            xn -= d;
            fxn_1 = fxn;
            fxn = unaryFun!(fun)(xn);
            d *= -fxn / (fxn - fxn_1);
        }
        return xn;
    }
}

unittest
{
    scope(failure) stderr.writeln("Failure testing secantMethod");
    float f(float x) {
        return cos(x) - x*x*x;
    }
    invariant x = secantMethod!(f)(0f, 1f);
    assert(approxEqual(x, 0.865474));
    auto d = &f;
    invariant y = secantMethod!(d)(0f, 1f);
    assert(approxEqual(y, 0.865474));
}


private:
// Return true if a and b have opposite sign.
bool oppositeSigns(T)(T a, T b)
{
    return signbit(a) != signbit(b);
}

public:

/**  Find a real root of a real function f(x) via bracketing.
 *
 * Given a function $(D f) and a range $(D [a..b]) such that $(D f(a))
 * and $(D f(b)) have opposite signs, returns the value of $(D x) in
 * the range which is closest to a root of $(D f(x)).  If $(D f(x))
 * has more than one root in the range, one will be chosen
 * arbitrarily.  If $(D f(x)) returns NaN, NaN will be returned;
 * otherwise, this algorithm is guaranteed to succeed.
 *  
 * Uses an algorithm based on TOMS748, which uses inverse cubic
 * interpolation whenever possible, otherwise reverting to parabolic
 * or secant interpolation. Compared to TOMS748, this implementation
 * improves worst-case performance by a factor of more than 100, and
 * typical performance by a factor of 2. For 80-bit reals, most
 * problems require 8 to 15 calls to $(D f(x)) to achieve full machine
 * precision. The worst-case performance (pathological cases) is
 * approximately twice the number of bits.
 *
 * References: "On Enclosing Simple Roots of Nonlinear Equations",
 * G. Alefeld, F.A. Potra, Yixun Shi, Mathematics of Computation 61,
 * pp733-744 (1993).  Fortran code available from $(WEB
 * www.netlib.org,www.netlib.org) as algorithm TOMS478.
 *
 */
T findRoot(T, R)(R delegate(T) f, T a, T b)
{
    auto r = findRoot(f, a, b, f(a), f(b), (T lo, T hi){ return false; });
    // Return the first value if it is smaller or NaN
    return fabs(r.field[2]) !> fabs(r.field[3]) ? r.field[0] : r.field[1];
}

/** Find root of a real function f(x) by bracketing, allowing the
 * termination condition to be specified.
 *
 * Params:
 * 
 * f = Function to be analyzed
 *
 * ax = Left bound of initial range of $(D f) known to contain the
 * root.
 *
 * bx = Right bound of initial range of $(D f) known to contain the
 * root.
 *
 * fax = Value of $(D f(ax)).
 *
 * fbx = Value of $(D f(bx)). ($(D f(ax)) and $(D f(bx)) are commonly
 * known in advance.)
 *
 * 
 * tolerance = Defines an early termination condition. Receives the
 *             current upper and lower bounds on the root. The
 *             delegate must return $(D true) when these bounds are
 *             acceptable. If this function always returns $(D false),
 *             full machine precision will be achieved.
 *
 * Returns:
 *
 * A tuple consisting of two ranges. The first two elements are the
 * range (in $(D x)) of the root, while the second pair of elements
 * are the corresponding function values at those points. If an exact
 * root was found, both of the first two elements will contain the
 * root, and the second pair of elements will be 0.
 */
Tuple!(T, T, R, R) findRoot(T,R)(R delegate(T) f, T ax, T bx, R fax, R fbx,
    bool delegate(T lo, T hi) tolerance)
in {
    assert(ax<>=0 && bx<>=0, "Limits must not be NaN");
    assert(signbit(fax) != signbit(fbx), "Parameters must bracket the root.");
}
body {
// Author: Don Clugston. This code is (heavily) modified from TOMS748 (www.netlib.org).
// The changes to improve the worst-cast performance are entirely original.

    T a, b, d;  // [a..b] is our current bracket. d is the third best guess.
    R fa, fb, fd; // Values of f at a, b, d.
    bool done = false; // Has a root been found?
    
    // Allow ax and bx to be provided in reverse order
    if (ax <= bx) {
        a = ax; fa = fax; 
        b = bx; fb = fbx;
    } else {
        a = bx; fa = fbx; 
        b = ax; fb = fax;
    }

    // Test the function at point c; update brackets accordingly
    void bracket(T c)
    {
        T fc = f(c);        
        if (fc !<> 0) { // Exact solution, or NaN
            a = c;
            fa = fc;
            d = c;
            fd = fc;
            done = true;
            return;
        }
        // Determine new enclosing interval
        if (signbit(fa) != signbit(fc)) {
            d = b;
            fd = fb;
            b = c;
            fb = fc;
        } else {
            d = a;
            fd = fa;
            a = c;
            fa = fc;
        }
    }

   /* Perform a secant interpolation. If the result would lie on a or b, or if
     a and b differ so wildly in magnitude that the result would be meaningless,
     perform a bisection instead.
    */
    T secant_interpolate(T a, T b, T fa, T fb)
    {
        if (( ((a - b) == a) && b!=0) || (a!=0 && ((b - a) == b))) {
            // Catastrophic cancellation
            if (a == 0) a = copysign(0.0L, b);
            else if (b == 0) b = copysign(0.0L, a);
            else if (signbit(a) != signbit(b)) return 0;
            T c = ieeeMean(a, b); 
            return c;
        }
       // avoid overflow
       if (b - a > T.max)    return b / 2.0 + a / 2.0;
       if (fb - fa > T.max)  return a - (b - a) / 2;
       T c = a - (fa / (fb - fa)) * (b - a);
       if (c == a || c == b) return (a + b) / 2;
       return c;
    }
    
    /* Uses 'numsteps' newton steps to approximate the zero in [a..b] of the
       quadratic polynomial interpolating f(x) at a, b, and d.
       Returns:         
         The approximate zero in [a..b] of the quadratic polynomial.
    */
    T newtonQuadratic(int numsteps)
    {
        // Find the coefficients of the quadratic polynomial.
        T a0 = fa;
        T a1 = (fb - fa)/(b - a);
        T a2 = ((fd - fb)/(d - b) - a1)/(d - a);
    
        // Determine the starting point of newton steps.
        T c = oppositeSigns(a2, fa) ? a  : b;
     
        // start the safeguarded newton steps.
        for (int i = 0; i<numsteps; ++i) {        
            T pc = a0 + (a1 + a2 * (c - b))*(c - a);
            T pdc = a1 + a2*((2.0 * c) - (a + b));
            if (pdc == 0) return a - a0 / a1;
            else c = c - pc / pdc;        
        }
        return c;    
    }
    
    // On the first iteration we take a secant step:
    if (fa !<> 0) {
        done = true;
        b = a;
        fb = fa;
    } else if (fb !<> 0) {
        done = true;
        a = b;
        fa = fb;
    } else {
        bracket(secant_interpolate(a, b, fa, fb));
    }
    // Starting with the second iteration, higher-order interpolation can
    // be used.
    int itnum = 1;   // Iteration number    
    int baditer = 1; // Num bisections to take if an iteration is bad.
    T c, e;  // e is our fourth best guess
    R fe;   
whileloop:
    while(!done && (b != nextUp(a)) && !tolerance(a, b)) {        
        T a0 = a, b0 = b; // record the brackets
      
        // Do two higher-order (cubic or parabolic) interpolation steps.
        for (int QQ = 0; QQ < 2; ++QQ) {      
            // Cubic inverse interpolation requires that 
            // all four function values fa, fb, fd, and fe are distinct; 
            // otherwise use quadratic interpolation.
            bool distinct = (fa != fb) && (fa != fd) && (fa != fe) 
                         && (fb != fd) && (fb != fe) && (fd != fe);
            // The first time, cubic interpolation is impossible.
            if (itnum<2) distinct = false;
            bool ok = distinct;
            if (distinct) {                
                // Cubic inverse interpolation of f(x) at a, b, d, and e
                real q11 = (d - e) * fd / (fe - fd);
                real q21 = (b - d) * fb / (fd - fb);
                real q31 = (a - b) * fa / (fb - fa);
                real d21 = (b - d) * fd / (fd - fb);
                real d31 = (a - b) * fb / (fb - fa);
                      
                real q22 = (d21 - q11) * fb / (fe - fb);
                real q32 = (d31 - q21) * fa / (fd - fa);
                real d32 = (d31 - q21) * fd / (fd - fa);
                real q33 = (d32 - q22) * fa / (fe - fa);
                c = a + (q31 + q32 + q33);
                if (c!<>=0 || (c <= a) || (c >= b)) {
                    // DAC: If the interpolation predicts a or b, it's 
                    // probable that it's the actual root. Only allow this if
                    // we're already close to the root.                
                    if (c == a && a - b != a) {
                        c = nextUp(a);
                    }
                    else if (c == b && a - b != -b) {
                        c = nextDown(b);
                    } else {
                        ok = false;
                    }
                }
            }
            if (!ok) {
                // DAC: Alefeld doesn't explain why the number of newton steps
                // should vary.
                c = newtonQuadratic(distinct ? 3 : 2);
                if(c!<>=0 || (c <= a) || (c >= b)) {
                    // Failure, try a secant step:
                    c = secant_interpolate(a, b, fa, fb);
                }
            }
            ++itnum;                
            e = d;
            fe = fd;
            bracket(c);
            if( done || ( b == nextUp(a)) || tolerance(a, b))
                break whileloop;
            if (itnum == 2)
                continue whileloop;
        }
        // Now we take a double-length secant step:
        T u;
        R fu;
        if(fabs(fa) < fabs(fb)) {
            u = a;
            fu = fa;
        } else {
            u = b;
            fu = fb;
        }
        c = u - 2 * (fu / (fb - fa)) * (b - a);
        // DAC: If the secant predicts a value equal to an endpoint, it's
        // probably false.      
        if(c==a || c==b || c!<>=0 || fabs(c - u) > (b - a) / 2) {
            if ((a-b) == a || (b-a) == b) {
                if ( (a>0 && b<0) || (a<0 && b>0) ) c = 0;
                else {
                    if (a==0) c = ieeeMean(cast(T)copysign(0.0L, b), b);
                    else if (b==0) c = ieeeMean(cast(T)copysign(0.0L, a), a);
                    else c = ieeeMean(a, b);
                }
            } else {
                c = a + (b - a) / 2;
            }       
        }
        e = d;
        fe = fd;
        bracket(c);
        if(done || (b == nextUp(a)) || tolerance(a, b))
            break;

        // IMPROVE THE WORST-CASE PERFORMANCE       
        // We must ensure that the bounds reduce by a factor of 2 
        // in binary space! every iteration. If we haven't achieved this
        // yet, or if we don't yet know what the exponent is,
        // perform a binary chop.

        if( (a==0 || b==0 || 
            (fabs(a) >= 0.5 * fabs(b) && fabs(b) >= 0.5 * fabs(a))) 
            &&  (b - a) < 0.25 * (b0 - a0))  {
                baditer = 1;        
                continue;
            }
        // DAC: If this happens on consecutive iterations, we probably have a
        // pathological function. Perform a number of bisections equal to the
        // total number of consecutive bad iterations.
        
        if ((b - a) < 0.25 * (b0 - a0)) baditer = 1;
        for (int QQ = 0; QQ < baditer ;++QQ) {
            e = d;
            fe = fd;
    
            T w;
            if ((a>0 && b<0) ||(a<0 && b>0)) w = 0;
            else {
                T usea = a;
                T useb = b;
                if (a == 0) usea = copysign(0.0L, b);
                else if (b == 0) useb = copysign(0.0L, a);
                w = ieeeMean(usea, useb);
            }
            bracket(w);
        }
        ++baditer;
    }
    return Tuple!(T, T, R, R)(a, b, fa, fb);
}

unittest
{    
    int numProblems = 0;
    int numCalls;
    
    void testFindRoot(real delegate(real) f, real x1, real x2) {
        numCalls=0;
        ++numProblems;
        assert(x1<>=0 && x2<>=0);
        assert(signbit(x1) != signbit(x2));
        auto result = findRoot(f, x1, x2, f(x1), f(x2),
          (real lo, real hi) { return false; });
        
        auto flo = f(result.field[0]);
        auto fhi = f(result.field[1]);
        if (flo!=0) {
            assert(oppositeSigns(flo, fhi));
        }
    }
    
    // Test functions
    real cubicfn (real x) {
       ++numCalls;
       if (x>float.max) x = float.max;
       if (x<-double.max) x = -double.max;
       // This has a single real root at -59.286543284815
       return 0.386*x*x*x + 23*x*x + 15.7*x + 525.2;
    }
    // Test a function with more than one root.
    real multisine(real x) { ++numCalls; return sin(x); }
    //testFindRoot( &multisine, 6, 90);
    //testFindRoot(&cubicfn, -100, 100);    
    //testFindRoot( &cubicfn, -double.max, real.max);
    
    
/* Tests from the paper:
 * "On Enclosing Simple Roots of Nonlinear Equations", G. Alefeld, F.A. Potra, 
 *   Yixun Shi, Mathematics of Computation 61, pp733-744 (1993).
 */
    // Parameters common to many alefeld tests.
    int n;
    real ale_a, ale_b;

    int powercalls = 0;
    
    real power(real x) {
        ++powercalls;
        ++numCalls;
        return pow(x, n) + double.min;
    }
    int [] power_nvals = [3, 5, 7, 9, 19, 25];
    // Alefeld paper states that pow(x,n) is a very poor case, where bisection
    // outperforms his method, and gives total numcalls = 
    // 921 for bisection (2.4 calls per bit), 1830 for Alefeld (4.76/bit), 
    // 2624 for brent (6.8/bit)
    // ... but that is for double, not real80.
    // This poor performance seems mainly due to catastrophic cancellation, 
    // which is avoided here by the use of ieeeMean().
    // I get: 231 (0.48/bit).
    // IE this is 10X faster in Alefeld's worst case
    numProblems=0;
    foreach(k; power_nvals) {
        n = k;
        //testFindRoot(&power, -1, 10);
    }
    
    int powerProblems = numProblems;

    // Tests from Alefeld paper
        
    int [9] alefeldSums;
    real alefeld0(real x){
        ++alefeldSums[0];
        ++numCalls;
        real q =  sin(x) - x/2;
        for (int i=1; i<20; ++i)
            q+=(2*i-5.0)*(2*i-5.0)/((x-i*i)*(x-i*i)*(x-i*i));
        return q;
    }
   real alefeld1(real x) {
        ++numCalls;
       ++alefeldSums[1];
       return ale_a*x + exp(ale_b * x);
   }
   real alefeld2(real x) {
        ++numCalls;
       ++alefeldSums[2];
       return pow(x, n) - ale_a;
   }
   real alefeld3(real x) {
        ++numCalls;
       ++alefeldSums[3];
       return (1.0 +pow(1.0L-n, 2))*x - pow(1.0L-n*x, 2);
   }
   real alefeld4(real x) {
        ++numCalls;
       ++alefeldSums[4];
       return x*x - pow(1-x, n);
   }
   
   real alefeld5(real x) {
        ++numCalls;
       ++alefeldSums[5];
       return (1+pow(1.0L-n, 4))*x - pow(1.0L-n*x, 4);
   }
   
   real alefeld6(real x) {
        ++numCalls;
       ++alefeldSums[6];
       return exp(-n*x)*(x-1.01L) + pow(x, n);
   }
   
   real alefeld7(real x) {
        ++numCalls;
       ++alefeldSums[7];
       return (n*x-1)/((n-1)*x);
   }
   numProblems=0;
   //testFindRoot(&alefeld0, PI_2, PI);
   for (n=1; n<=10; ++n) {
       //testFindRoot(&alefeld0, n*n+1e-9L, (n+1)*(n+1)-1e-9L);
   }
   ale_a = -40; ale_b = -1;
   //testFindRoot(&alefeld1, -9, 31);
   ale_a = -100; ale_b = -2;
   //testFindRoot(&alefeld1, -9, 31);
   ale_a = -200; ale_b = -3;
   //testFindRoot(&alefeld1, -9, 31);
   int [] nvals_3 = [1, 2, 5, 10, 15, 20];
   int [] nvals_5 = [1, 2, 4, 5, 8, 15, 20];
   int [] nvals_6 = [1, 5, 10, 15, 20];
   int [] nvals_7 = [2, 5, 15, 20];
  
    for(int i=4; i<12; i+=2) {
       n = i;
       ale_a = 0.2;
       //testFindRoot(&alefeld2, 0, 5);
       ale_a=1;
       //testFindRoot(&alefeld2, 0.95, 4.05);
       //testFindRoot(&alefeld2, 0, 1.5);       
    }
    foreach(i; nvals_3) {
        n=i;
        //testFindRoot(&alefeld3, 0, 1);
    }
    foreach(i; nvals_3) {
        n=i;
        //testFindRoot(&alefeld4, 0, 1);
    }
    foreach(i; nvals_5) {
        n=i;
        //testFindRoot(&alefeld5, 0, 1);
    }
    foreach(i; nvals_6) {
        n=i;
        //testFindRoot(&alefeld6, 0, 1);
    }
    foreach(i; nvals_7) {
        n=i;
        //testFindRoot(&alefeld7, 0.01L, 1);
    }   
    real worstcase(real x) { ++numCalls;
        return x<0.3*real.max? -0.999e-3 : 1.0;
    }
    //testFindRoot(&worstcase, -real.max, real.max);
    
    // just check that the double + float cases compile
    //findRoot((double x){ return 0.0; }, -double.max, double.max);
    //findRoot((float x){ return 0.0f; }, -float.max, float.max);
       
/*   
   int grandtotal=0;
   foreach(calls; alefeldSums) {
       grandtotal+=calls;
   }
   grandtotal-=2*numProblems;
   printf("\nALEFELD TOTAL = %d avg = %f (alefeld avg=19.3 for double)\n", 
   grandtotal, (1.0*grandtotal)/numProblems);
   powercalls -= 2*powerProblems;
   printf("POWER TOTAL = %d avg = %f ", powercalls, 
        (1.0*powercalls)/powerProblems);
*/        
}

/**
Computes $(LUCKY Euclidean distance) between input ranges $(D a) and
$(D b). The two ranges must have the same length. The three-parameter
version stops computation as soon as the distance is greater than or
equal to $(D limit) (this is useful to save computation if a small
distance is sought).
 */
CommonType!(ElementType!(Range1), ElementType!(Range2))
euclideanDistance(Range1, Range2)(Range1 a, Range2 b)
    if (isInputRange!(Range1) && isInputRange!(Range2))
{
    enum bool haveLen = hasLength!(Range1) && hasLength!(Range2);
    static if (haveLen) enforce(a.length == b.length);
    typeof(return) result = 0;
    for (; !a.empty; a.popFront, b.popFront)
    {
        auto t = a.front - b.front;
        result += t * t;
    }
    static if (!haveLen) enforce(b.empty);
    return sqrt(result);
}

/// Ditto
CommonType!(ElementType!(Range1), ElementType!(Range2))
euclideanDistance(Range1, Range2, F)(Range1 a, Range2 b, F limit)
    if (isInputRange!(Range1) && isInputRange!(Range2))
{
    limit *= limit;
    enum bool haveLen = hasLength!(Range1) && hasLength!(Range2);
    static if (haveLen) enforce(a.length == b.length);
    typeof(return) result = 0;
    for (; ; a.popFront, b.popFront)
    {
        if (a.empty)
        {
            static if (!haveLen) enforce(b.empty);
            break;
        }
        auto t = a.front - b.front;
        result += t * t;
        if (result >= limit) break;
    }
    return sqrt(result);
}

unittest
{
    double[] a = [ 1., 2., ];
    double[] b = [ 4., 6., ];
    assert(euclideanDistance(a, b) == 5);
    assert(euclideanDistance(a, b, 5) == 5);
    assert(euclideanDistance(a, b, 4) == 5);
    assert(euclideanDistance(a, b, 2) == 3);
}

/**
Computes the $(LUCKY dot product) of input ranges $(D a) and $(D
b). The two ranges must have the same length. If both ranges define
length, the check is done once; otherwise, it is done at each
iteration.
 */
CommonType!(ElementType!(Range1), ElementType!(Range2))
dotProduct(Range1, Range2)(Range1 a, Range2 b)
    if (isInputRange!(Range1) && isInputRange!(Range2) &&
            !(isArray!(Range1) && isArray!(Range2)))
{
    enum bool haveLen = hasLength!(Range1) && hasLength!(Range2);
    static if (haveLen) enforce(a.length == b.length);
    typeof(return) result = 0;
    for (; !a.empty; a.popFront, b.popFront)
    {
        result += a.front * b.front;
    }
    static if (!haveLen) enforce(b.empty);
    return result;
}

/// Ditto
Unqual!(CommonType!(F1, F2))
dotProduct(F1, F2)(in F1[] avector, in F2[] bvector)
{
    invariant n = avector.length;
    assert(n == bvector.length);
    auto avec = avector.ptr, bvec = bvector.ptr;
    typeof(return) sum0 = 0.0, sum1 = 0.0;
    
    const all_endp = avec + n;
    const smallblock_endp = avec + (n & ~3);
    const bigblock_endp = avec + (n & ~15);
    
    for (; avec != bigblock_endp; avec += 16, bvec += 16)
    {
        sum0 += avec[0] * bvec[0];
        sum1 += avec[1] * bvec[1];
        sum0 += avec[2] * bvec[2];
        sum1 += avec[3] * bvec[3];
        sum0 += avec[4] * bvec[4];
        sum1 += avec[5] * bvec[5];
        sum0 += avec[6] * bvec[6];
        sum1 += avec[7] * bvec[7];
        sum0 += avec[8] * bvec[8];
        sum1 += avec[9] * bvec[9];
        sum0 += avec[10] * bvec[10];
        sum1 += avec[11] * bvec[11];
        sum0 += avec[12] * bvec[12];
        sum1 += avec[13] * bvec[13];
        sum0 += avec[14] * bvec[14];
        sum1 += avec[15] * bvec[15];
    }
    
    for (; avec != smallblock_endp; avec += 4, bvec += 4) {
        sum0 += avec[0] * bvec[0];
        sum1 += avec[1] * bvec[1];
        sum0 += avec[2] * bvec[2];
        sum1 += avec[3] * bvec[3];
    }
    
    sum0 += sum1;
    
    /* Do trailing portion in naive loop. */
    while (avec != all_endp)
        sum0 += (*avec++) * (*bvec++);
    
    return sum0;
}

unittest
{
    double[] a = [ 1., 2., ];
    double[] b = [ 4., 6., ];
    assert(dotProduct(a, b) == 16);
}

/**
Computes the $(LUCKY cosine similarity) of input ranges $(D a) and $(D
b). The two ranges must have the same length. If both ranges define
length, the check is done once; otherwise, it is done at each
iteration. If either range has all-zero elements, return 0.
 */
CommonType!(ElementType!(Range1), ElementType!(Range2))
cosineSimilarity(Range1, Range2)(Range1 a, Range2 b)
    if (isInputRange!(Range1) && isInputRange!(Range2))
{
    enum bool haveLen = hasLength!(Range1) && hasLength!(Range2);
    static if (haveLen) enforce(a.length == b.length);
    FPTemporary!(typeof(return)) norma = 0, normb = 0, dotprod = 0;
    for (; !a.empty; a.popFront, b.popFront)
    {
        immutable t1 = a.front, t2 = b.front;
        norma += t1 * t1;
        normb += t2 * t2;
        dotprod += t1 * t2;
    }
    static if (!haveLen) enforce(b.empty);
    if (norma == 0 || normb == 0) return 0;
    return dotprod / sqrt(norma * normb);
}

unittest
{
    double[] a = [ 1., 2., ];
    double[] b = [ 4., 3., ];
    // writeln(cosineSimilarity(a, b));
    // writeln(10.0 / sqrt(5.0 * 25));
    assert(approxEqual(
                cosineSimilarity(a, b), 10.0 / sqrt(5.0 * 25),
                0.01));
}

/**
Normalizes values in $(D range) by multiplying each element with a
number chosen such that values sum up to $(D sum). If elements in $(D
range) sum to zero, assigns $(D sum / range.length) to
all. Normalization makes sense only if all elements in $(D range) are
positive. $(D normalize) assumes that is the case without checking it.

Returns: $(D true) if normalization completed normally, $(D false) if
all elements in $(D range) were zero or if $(D range) is empty.
 */
bool normalize(R)(R range, ElementType!(R) sum = 1) if (isForwardRange!(R))
{
    ElementType!(R) s = 0;
    // Step 1: Compute sum and length of the range
    static if (hasLength!(R))
    {
        const length = range.length;
        foreach (e; range)
        {
            s += e;
        }
    }
    else
    {
        uint length = 0;
        foreach (e; range)
        {
            s += e;
            ++length;
        }
    }
    // Step 2: perform normalization
    if (s == 0)
    {
        if (length)
        {
            auto f = sum / range.length;
            foreach (ref e; range) e = f;
        }
        return false;
    }
    // The path most traveled
    assert(s >= 0);
    auto f = sum / s;
    foreach (ref e; range) e *= f;
    return true;
}

unittest
{
    double[] a = [];
    assert(!normalize(a));
    a = [ 1., 3. ];
    assert(normalize(a));
    assert(a == [ 0.25, 0.75 ]);
    a = [ 0., 0. ];
    assert(!normalize(a));
    assert(a == [ 0.5, 0.5 ]);
}

/**
Computes $(LUCKY _entropy) of input range $(D r) in bits. This
function assumes (without checking) that the values in $(D r) are all
in $(D [0, 1]). For the entropy to be meaningful, often $(D r) should
be normalized too (i.e., its values should sum to 1). The
two-parameter version stops evaluating as soon as the intermediate
result is greater than or equal to $(D max).
 */
ElementType!Range entropy(Range)(Range r) if (isInputRange!Range)
{
    Unqual!(typeof(return)) result = 0.0;
    foreach (e; r)
    {
        if (!e) continue;
        result -= e * log2(e);
    }
    return result;
}

/// Ditto
ElementType!Range entropy(Range, F)(Range r, F max)
if (isInputRange!Range
        && !is(CommonType!(ElementType!Range, F) == void))
{
    typeof(return) result = 0.0;
    foreach (e; r)
    {
        if (!e) continue;
        result -= e * log2(e);
        if (result >= max) break;
    }
    return result;
}

unittest
{
    double[] p = [ 0.0, 0, 0, 1 ];
    assert(entropy(p) == 0);
    p = [ 0.25, 0.25, 0.25, 0.25 ];
    assert(entropy(p) == 2);
    assert(entropy(p, 1) == 1);
}

/**
Computes the $(LUCKY Kullback-Leibler divergence) between input ranges
$(D a) and $(D b), which is the sum $(D ai * log(ai / bi)). The base
of logarithm is 2. The ranges are assumed to contain elements in $(D
[0, 1]). Usually the ranges are normalized probability distributions,
but this is not required or checked by $(D
kullbackLeiblerDivergence). If any element $(D bi) is zero and the
corresponding element $(D ai) nonzero, returns infinity. (Otherwise,
if $(D ai == 0 && bi == 0), the term $(D ai * log(ai / bi)) is
considered zero.) If the inputs are normalized, the result is
positive.
 */
CommonType!(ElementType!Range1, ElementType!Range2)
kullbackLeiblerDivergence(Range1, Range2)(Range1 a, Range2 b)
    if (isInputRange!(Range1) && isInputRange!(Range2))
{
    enum bool haveLen = hasLength!(Range1) && hasLength!(Range2);
    static if (haveLen) enforce(a.length == b.length);
    FPTemporary!(typeof(return)) result = 0;
    for (; !a.empty; a.popFront, b.popFront)
    {
        immutable t1 = a.front;
        if (t1 == 0) continue;
        immutable t2 = b.front;
        if (t2 == 0) return result.infinity;
        assert(t1 > 0 && t2 > 0);
        result += t1 * log2(t1 / t2);
    }
    static if (!haveLen) enforce(b.empty);
    return result;
}

unittest
{
    double[] p = [ 0.0, 0, 0, 1 ];
    assert(kullbackLeiblerDivergence(p, p) == 0);
    double[] p1 = [ 0.25, 0.25, 0.25, 0.25 ];
    assert(kullbackLeiblerDivergence(p1, p1) == 0);
    assert(kullbackLeiblerDivergence(p, p1) == 2);
    assert(kullbackLeiblerDivergence(p1, p) == double.infinity);
    double[] p2 = [ 0.2, 0.2, 0.2, 0.4 ];
    assert(approxEqual(kullbackLeiblerDivergence(p1, p2), 0.0719281));
    assert(approxEqual(kullbackLeiblerDivergence(p2, p1), 0.0780719));
}

/**
Computes the $(LUCKY Jensen-Shannon divergence) between $(D a) and $(D
b), which is the sum $(D (ai * log(2 * ai / (ai + bi)) + bi * log(2 *
bi / (ai + bi))) / 2). The base of logarithm is 2. The ranges are
assumed to contain elements in $(D [0, 1]). Usually the ranges are
normalized probability distributions, but this is not required or
checked by $(D jensenShannonDivergence). If the inputs are normalized,
the result is bounded within $(D [0, 1]). The three-parameter version
stops evaluations as soon as the intermediate result is greater than
or equal to $(D limit).
 */
CommonType!(ElementType!Range1, ElementType!Range2)
jensenShannonDivergence(Range1, Range2)(Range1 a, Range2 b)
    if (isInputRange!Range1 && isInputRange!Range2
            && is(CommonType!(ElementType!Range1, ElementType!Range2)))
{
    enum bool haveLen = hasLength!(Range1) && hasLength!(Range2);
    static if (haveLen) enforce(a.length == b.length);
    FPTemporary!(typeof(return)) result = 0;
    for (; !a.empty; a.popFront, b.popFront)
    {
        immutable t1 = a.front;
        immutable t2 = b.front;
        immutable avg = (t1 + t2) / 2;
        if (t1 != 0)
        {
            result += t1 * log2(t1 / avg);
        }
        if (t2 != 0)
        {
            result += t2 * log2(t2 / avg);
        }
    }
    static if (!haveLen) enforce(b.empty);
    return result / 2;
}

/// Ditto
CommonType!(ElementType!Range1, ElementType!Range2)
jensenShannonDivergence(Range1, Range2, F)(Range1 a, Range2 b, F limit)
   if (isInputRange!Range1 && isInputRange!Range2
           && is(typeof(CommonType!(ElementType!Range1, ElementType!Range2).init
                           >= F.init) : bool))
{
    enum bool haveLen = hasLength!(Range1) && hasLength!(Range2);
    static if (haveLen) enforce(a.length == b.length);
    FPTemporary!(typeof(return)) result = 0;
    limit *= 2;
    for (; !a.empty; a.popFront, b.popFront)
    {
        immutable t1 = a.front;
        immutable t2 = b.front;
        immutable avg = (t1 + t2) / 2;
        if (t1 != 0)
        {
            result += t1 * log2(t1 / avg);
        }
        if (t2 != 0)
        {
            result += t2 * log2(t2 / avg);
        }
        if (result >= limit) break;
    }
    static if (!haveLen) enforce(b.empty);
    return result / 2;
}

unittest
{
    double[] p = [ 0.0, 0, 0, 1 ];
    assert(jensenShannonDivergence(p, p) == 0);
    double[] p1 = [ 0.25, 0.25, 0.25, 0.25 ];
    assert(jensenShannonDivergence(p1, p1) == 0);
    assert(approxEqual(jensenShannonDivergence(p1, p), 0.548795));
    double[] p2 = [ 0.2, 0.2, 0.2, 0.4 ];
    assert(approxEqual(jensenShannonDivergence(p1, p2), 0.0186218));
    assert(approxEqual(jensenShannonDivergence(p2, p1), 0.0186218));
    assert(approxEqual(jensenShannonDivergence(p2, p1, 0.005), 0.00602366));
}

// template tabulateFixed(alias fun, uint n,
//         real maxError, real left, real right)
// {
//     ReturnType!(fun) tabulateFixed(ParameterTypeTuple!(fun) arg)
//     {
//         alias ParameterTypeTuple!(fun)[0] num;
//         static num[n] table;
//         alias arg[0] x;
//         enforce(left <= x && x < right);
//         invariant i = cast(uint) (table.length
//                 * ((x - left) / (right - left)));
//         assert(i < n);
//         if (isnan(table[i])) {
//             // initialize it
//             auto x1 = left + i * (right - left) / n;
//             auto x2 = left + (i + 1) * (right - left) / n;
//             invariant y1 = fun(x1), y2 = fun(x2);
//             invariant y = 2 * y1 * y2 / (y1 + y2);
//             num wyda(num xx) { return fun(xx) - y; }
//             auto bestX = findRoot(&wyda, x1, x2);
//             table[i] = fun(bestX);
//             invariant leftError = abs((table[i] - y1) / y1);
//             enforce(leftError <= maxError, text(leftError, " > ", maxError));
//             invariant rightError = abs((table[i] - y2) / y2);
//             enforce(rightError <= maxError, text(rightError, " > ", maxError));
//         }
//         return table[i];
//     }
// }

// unittest
// {
//     enum epsilon = 0.01;
//     alias tabulateFixed!(tanh, 700, epsilon, 0.2, 3) fasttanh;
//     uint testSize = 100000;
//     auto rnd = Random(unpredictableSeed);
//     foreach (i; 0 .. testSize) {
//         invariant x = uniform(rnd, 0.2F, 3.0F);
//         invariant float y = fasttanh(x), w = tanh(x);
//         invariant e = abs(y - w) / w;
//         //writefln("%.20f", e);
//         enforce(e <= epsilon, text("x = ", x, ", fasttanh(x) = ", y,
//                         ", tanh(x) = ", w, ", relerr = ", e));
//     }
// }

/**
The so-called "all-lengths gap-weighted string kernel" computes a
similarity measure between $(D s) and $(D t) based on all of their
common subsequences of all lengths. Gapped subsequences are also
included.

To understand what $(D gapWeightedSimilarity(s, t, lambda)) computes,
consider first the case $(D lambda = 1) and the strings $(D s =
["Hello", "brave", "new", "world"]) and $(D t = ["Hello", "new",
"world"]). In that case, $(D gapWeightedSimilarity) counts the
following matches:

$(OL $(LI three matches of length 1, namely $(D "Hello"), $(D "new"),
and $(D "world");) $(LI three matches of length 2, namely ($(D
"Hello", "new")), ($(D "Hello", "world")), and ($(D "new", "world"));)
$(LI one match of length 3, namely ($(D "Hello", "new", "world")).))

The call $(D gapWeightedSimilarity(s, t, 1)) simply counts all of
these matches and adds them up, returning 7.

----
string[] s = ["Hello", "brave", "new", "world"];
string[] t = ["Hello", "new", "world"];
assert(gapWeightedSimilarity(s, t, 1) == 7);
----

Note how the gaps in matching are simply ignored, for example ($(D
"Hello", "new")) is deemed as good a match as ($(D "new",
"world")). This may be too permissive for some applications. To
eliminate gapped matches entirely, use $(D lambda = 0):

----
string[] s = ["Hello", "brave", "new", "world"];
string[] t = ["Hello", "new", "world"];
assert(gapWeightedSimilarity(s, t, 0) == 4);
----

The call above eliminated the gapped matches ($(D "Hello", "new")),
($(D "Hello", "world")), and ($(D "Hello", "new", "world")) from the
tally. That leaves only 4 matches.

The most interesting case is when gapped matches still participate in
the result, but not as strongly as ungapped matches. The result will
be a smooth, fine-grained similarity measure between the input
strings. This is where values of $(D lambda) between 0 and 1 enter
into play: gapped matches are $(I exponentially penalized with the
number of gaps) with base $(D lambda). This means that an ungapped
match adds 1 to the return value; a match with one gap in either
string adds $(D lambda) to the return value; ...; a match with a total
of $(D n) gaps in both strings adds $(D pow(lambda, n)) to the return
value. In the example above, we have 4 matches without gaps, 2 matches
with one gap, and 1 match with three gaps. The latter match is ($(D
"Hello", "world")), which has two gaps in the first string and one gap
in the second string, totaling to three gaps. Summing these up we get
$(D 4 + 2 * lambda + pow(lambda, 3)).

----
string[] s = ["Hello", "brave", "new", "world"];
string[] t = ["Hello", "new", "world"];
assert(gapWeightedSimilarity(s, t, 0.5) == 4 + 0.5 * 2 + 0.125);
----

$(D gapWeightedSimilarity) is useful wherever a smooth similarity
measure between sequences allowing for approximate matches is
needed. The examples above are given with words, but any sequences
with elements comparable for equality are allowed, e.g. characters or
numbers. $(D gapWeightedSimilarity) uses a highly optimized dynamic
programming implementation that needs $(D 16 * min(s.length,
t.length)) extra bytes of memory and $(BIGOH s.length * t.length) time
to complete.
 */
F gapWeightedSimilarity(alias comp = "a == b", R1, R2, F)(R1 s, R2 t, F lambda)
    if (isRandomAccessRange!(R1) && hasLength!(R1)
            && isRandomAccessRange!(R2) && hasLength!(R2))
{
    if (s.length < t.length) return gapWeightedSimilarity(t, s, lambda);
    if (!t.length) return 0;
    immutable tl1 = t.length + 1;
    auto dpvi = enforce(cast(F*) malloc(F.sizeof * 2 * t.length));
    auto dpvi1 = dpvi + t.length;
    scope(exit) free(dpvi < dpvi1 ? dpvi : dpvi1);
    dpvi[0 .. t.length] = 0;
    dpvi1[0] = 0;
    immutable lambda2 = lambda * lambda;

    F result = 0;
    foreach (i; 0 .. s.length)
    {
        const si = s[i];
        for (size_t j = 0;;)
        {
            F dpsij = void;
            if (binaryFun!(comp)(si, t[j]))
            {
                dpsij = 1 + dpvi[j];
                result += dpsij;
            }
            else
            {
                dpsij = 0;
            }
            immutable j1 = j + 1;
            if (j1 == t.length) break;
            dpvi1[j1] = dpsij + lambda * (dpvi1[j] + dpvi[j1])
                - lambda2 * dpvi[j];
            j = j1;
        }
        swap(dpvi, dpvi1);
    }
    return result;
}

unittest
{
    string[] s = ["Hello", "brave", "new", "world"];
    string[] t = ["Hello", "new", "world"];
    assert(gapWeightedSimilarity(s, t, 1) == 7);
    assert(gapWeightedSimilarity(s, t, 0) == 4);
    assert(gapWeightedSimilarity(s, t, 0.5) == 4 + 2 * 0.5 + 0.125);
}

/**
The similarity per $(D gapWeightedSimilarity) has an issue in that it
grows with the lengths of the two strings, even though the strings are
not actually very similar. For example, the range $(D ["Hello",
"world"]) is increasingly similar with the range $(D ["Hello",
"world", "world", "world",...]) as more instances of $(D "world") are
appended. To prevent that, $(D gapWeightedSimilarityNormalized)
computes a normalized version of the similarity that is computed as
$(D gapWeightedSimilarity(s, t, lambda) /
sqrt(gapWeightedSimilarity(s, t, lambda) * gapWeightedSimilarity(s, t,
lambda))). The function $(D gapWeightedSimilarityNormalized) (a
so-called normalized kernel) is bounded in $(D [0, 1]), reaches $(D 0)
only for ranges that don't match in any position, and $(D 1) only for
identical ranges.

Example:
----
string[] s = ["Hello", "brave", "new", "world"];
string[] t = ["Hello", "new", "world"];
assert(gapWeightedSimilarity(s, s, 1) == 15);
assert(gapWeightedSimilarity(t, t, 1) == 7);
assert(gapWeightedSimilarity(s, t, 1) == 7);
assert(gapWeightedSimilarityNormalized(s, t, 1) == 7. / sqrt(15. * 7));
----

The optional parameters $(D sSelfSim) and $(D tSelfSim) are meant for
avoiding duplicate computation. Many applications may have already
computed $(D gapWeightedSimilarity(s, s, lambda)) and/or $(D
gapWeightedSimilarity(t, t, lambda)). In that case, they can be passed
as $(D sSelfSim) and $(D tSelfSim), respectively.
 */
Select!(isFloatingPoint!(F), F, double)
gapWeightedSimilarityNormalized
(alias comp = "a == b", R1, R2, F)(R1 s, R2 t, F lambda,
        F sSelfSim = F.init, F tSelfSim = F.init)
    if (isRandomAccessRange!(R1) && hasLength!(R1)
            && isRandomAccessRange!(R2) && hasLength!(R2))
{
    static bool uncomputed(F n)
    {
        static if (isFloatingPoint!(F)) return isnan(n);
        else return n == n.init;
    }
    if (uncomputed(sSelfSim))
        sSelfSim = gapWeightedSimilarity!(comp)(s, s, lambda);
    if (sSelfSim == 0) return 0;
    if (uncomputed(tSelfSim))
        tSelfSim = gapWeightedSimilarity!(comp)(t, t, lambda);
    if (tSelfSim == 0) return 0;
    return gapWeightedSimilarity!(comp)(s, t, lambda)
        / sqrt(cast(typeof(return)) sSelfSim * tSelfSim);
}

unittest
{
    string[] s = ["Hello", "brave", "new", "world"];
    string[] t = ["Hello", "new", "world"];
    assert(gapWeightedSimilarity(s, s, 1) == 15);
    assert(gapWeightedSimilarity(t, t, 1) == 7);
    assert(gapWeightedSimilarity(s, t, 1) == 7);
    assert(approxEqual(gapWeightedSimilarityNormalized(s, t, 1),
                    7. / sqrt(15. * 7), 0.01));
}

/**
Similar to $(D gapWeightedSimilarity), just works in an incremental
manner by first revealing the matches of length 1, then gapped matches
of length 2, and so on. The memory requirement is $(BIGOH s.length *
t.length). The time complexity is $(BIGOH s.length * t.length) time
for computing each step. Continuing on the previous example:

----
string[] s = ["Hello", "brave", "new", "world"];
string[] t = ["Hello", "new", "world"];
auto simIter = gapWeightedSimilarityIncremental(s, t, 1);
assert(simIter.front == 3); // three 1-length matches
simIter.popFront;
assert(simIter.front == 3); // three 2-length matches
simIter.popFront;
assert(simIter.front == 1); // one 3-length match
simIter.popFront;
assert(simIter.empty);     // no more match
----

The implementation is based on the pseudocode in Fig. 4 of the paper
$(WEB jmlr.csail.mit.edu/papers/volume6/rousu05a/rousu05a.pdf,
"Efﬁcient Computation of Gapped Substring Kernels on Large Alphabets")
by Rousu et al., with additional algorithmic and systems-level
optimizations.
 */
struct GapWeightedSimilarityIncremental(Range, F = double)
    if (isRandomAccessRange!(Range) && hasLength!(Range))
{
private:
    Range s, t;
    F currentValue = 0;
    F * kl;
    size_t gram = void;
    F lambda = void, lambda2 = void;

public:
/**
Constructs an object given two ranges $(D s) and $(D t) and a penalty
$(D lambda). Constructor completes in $(BIGOH s.length * t.length)
time and computes all matches of length 1.
 */
    this(Range s, Range t, F lambda) {
        enforce(lambda > 0);
        this.lambda = lambda;
        this.lambda2 = lambda * lambda; // for efficiency only

        size_t iMin = size_t.max, jMin = size_t.max,
            iMax = 0, jMax = 0;
        /* initialize */
        Tuple!(uint, uint) * k0;
        size_t k0len;
        scope(exit) free(k0);
        currentValue = 0;
        foreach (i, si; s) {
            foreach (j; 0 .. t.length) {
                if (si != t[j]) continue;
                k0 = cast(typeof(k0))
                    realloc(k0, ++k0len * (*k0).sizeof);
                with (k0[k0len - 1]) {
                    field[0] = i;
                    field[1] = j;
                }
                // Maintain the minimum and maximum i and j
                if (iMin > i) iMin = i;
                if (iMax < i) iMax = i;
                if (jMin > j) jMin = j;
                if (jMax < j) jMax = j;
            }
        }
        
        if (iMin > iMax) return;        
        assert(k0len);

        currentValue = k0len;
        // Chop strings down to the useful sizes
        s = s[iMin .. iMax + 1];
        t = t[jMin .. jMax + 1];
        this.s = s;
        this.t = t;

        // Si = errnoEnforce(cast(F *) malloc(t.length * F.sizeof));
        kl = errnoEnforce(cast(F *) malloc(s.length * t.length * F.sizeof));

        kl[0 .. s.length * t.length] = 0;
        foreach (pos; 0 .. k0len) {
            with (k0[pos]) {
                kl[(field[0] - iMin) * t.length + field[1] -jMin] = lambda2;
            }
        }
    }

/**
Returns $(D this).
 */
    ref GapWeightedSimilarityIncremental opSlice()
    {
        return this;
    }

/**
Computes the match of the popFront length. Completes in $(BIGOH s.length *
t.length) time.
 */ 
    void popFront() {
        // This is a large source of optimization: if similarity at
        // the gram-1 level was 0, then we can safely assume
        // similarity at the gram level is 0 as well.
        if (empty) return;
        
        // Now attempt to match gapped substrings of length `gram'
        ++gram;
        currentValue = 0;

        auto Si = cast(F*) alloca(t.length * F.sizeof);
        Si[0 .. t.length] = 0;
        foreach (i; 0 .. s.length)
        {
            const si = s[i];
            F Sij_1 = 0;
            F Si_1j_1 = 0;
            auto kli = kl + i * t.length;
            for (size_t j = 0;;)
            {
                const klij = kli[j];
                const Si_1j = Si[j];
                const tmp = klij + lambda * (Si_1j + Sij_1) - lambda2 * Si_1j_1;
                // now update kl and currentValue
                if (si == t[j])
                    currentValue += kli[j] = lambda2 * Si_1j_1;
                else
                    kli[j] = 0;
                // commit to Si
                Si[j] = tmp;
                if (++j == t.length) break;
                // get ready for the popFront step; virtually increment j,
                // so essentially stuffj_1 <-- stuffj
                Si_1j_1 = Si_1j;
                Sij_1 = tmp;
            }
        }
        currentValue /= pow(lambda, 2 * (gram + 1));
        
        version (none)
        {
            Si_1[0 .. t.length] = 0;
            kl[0 .. min(t.length, maxPerimeter + 1)] = 0;
            foreach (i; 1 .. min(s.length, maxPerimeter + 1)) {
                auto kli = kl + i * t.length;
                assert(s.length > i);
                const si = s[i];
                auto kl_1i_1 = kl_1 + (i - 1) * t.length;
                kli[0] = 0;
                F lastS = 0;
                foreach (j; 1 .. min(maxPerimeter - i + 1, t.length)) {
                    immutable j_1 = j - 1;
                    immutable tmp = kl_1i_1[j_1]
                        + lambda * (Si_1[j] + lastS)
                        - lambda2 * Si_1[j_1];
                    kl_1i_1[j_1] = float.nan;
                    Si_1[j_1] = lastS;
                    lastS = tmp;
                    if (si == t[j]) {
                        currentValue += kli[j] = lambda2 * lastS;
                    } else {
                        kli[j] = 0;
                    }
                }
                Si_1[t.length - 1] = lastS;
            }
            currentValue /= pow(lambda, 2 * (gram + 1));
            // get ready for the popFront computation
            swap(kl, kl_1);
        }
    }

/**
Returns the gapped similarity at the current match length (initially
1, grows with each call to $(D popFront)).
 */
    F front() { return currentValue; }

/**
Returns whether there are more matches.
 */
    bool empty() {
        if (currentValue) return false;
        if (kl) {
            free(kl);
            kl = null;
        }
        return true;
    }
}

/**
Ditto
 */
GapWeightedSimilarityIncremental!(R, F) gapWeightedSimilarityIncremental(R, F)
(R r1, R r2, F penalty)
{
    return typeof(return)(r1, r2, penalty);
}

unittest
{
    string[] s = ["Hello", "brave", "new", "world"];
    string[] t = ["Hello", "new", "world"];
    auto simIter = gapWeightedSimilarityIncremental(s, t, 1.0);
    //foreach (e; simIter) writeln(e);
    assert(simIter.front == 3); // three 1-length matches
    simIter.popFront;
    assert(simIter.front == 3, text(simIter.front)); // three 2-length matches
    simIter.popFront;
    assert(simIter.front == 1); // one 3-length matches
    simIter.popFront;
    assert(simIter.empty);     // no more match

    s = ["Hello"];
    t = ["bye"];
    simIter = gapWeightedSimilarityIncremental(s, t, 0.5);
    assert(simIter.empty);

    s = ["Hello"];
    t = ["Hello"];
    simIter = gapWeightedSimilarityIncremental(s, t, 0.5);
    assert(simIter.front == 1); // one match
    simIter.popFront;
    assert(simIter.empty);

    s = ["Hello", "world"];
    t = ["Hello"];
    simIter = gapWeightedSimilarityIncremental(s, t, 0.5);
    assert(simIter.front == 1); // one match
    simIter.popFront;
    assert(simIter.empty);

    s = ["Hello", "world"];
    t = ["Hello", "yah", "world"];
    simIter = gapWeightedSimilarityIncremental(s, t, 0.5);
    assert(simIter.front == 2); // two 1-gram matches
    simIter.popFront;
    assert(simIter.front == 0.5, text(simIter.front)); // one 2-gram match, 1 gap
}

unittest
{
    GapWeightedSimilarityIncremental!(string[]) sim =
        GapWeightedSimilarityIncremental!(string[])(
            ["nyuk", "I", "have", "no", "chocolate", "giba"],
            ["wyda", "I", "have", "I", "have", "have", "I", "have", "hehe"],
            0.5);
    double witness[] = [ 7., 4.03125, 0, 0 ];
    foreach (e; sim)
    {
        //writeln(e);
        assert(e == witness.front);
        witness.popFront;
    }
    witness = [ 3., 1.3125, 0.25 ];
    sim = GapWeightedSimilarityIncremental!(string[])(
        ["I", "have", "no", "chocolate"],
        ["I", "have", "some", "chocolate"],
        0.5);
    foreach (e; sim)
    {
        //writeln(e);
        assert(e == witness.front);
        witness.popFront;
    }
    assert(witness.empty);
}

/*
 *  Copyright (C) 2004-2009 by Digital Mars, www.digitalmars.com
 *  Written by Andrei Alexandrescu, www.erdani.org
 *
 *  This software is provided 'as-is', without any express or implied
 *  warranty. In no event will the authors be held liable for any damages
 *  arising from the use of this software.
 *
 *  Permission is granted to anyone to use this software for any purpose,
 *  including commercial applications, and to alter it and redistribute it
 *  freely, subject to the following restrictions:
 *
 *  o  The origin of this software must not be misrepresented; you must not
 *     claim that you wrote the original software. If you use this software
 *     in a product, an acknowledgment in the product documentation would be
 *     appreciated but is not required.
 *  o  Altered source versions must be plainly marked as such, and must not
 *     be misrepresented as being the original software.
 *  o  This notice may not be removed or altered from any source
 *     distribution.
 */
/+
/**
Primes generator
*/
struct Primes(UIntType)
{
    private UIntType[] found = [ 2 ];

    UIntType front() { return found[$ - 1]; }

    void popFront()
    {
      outer:
        for (UIntType candidate = front + 1 + (front != 2); ; candidate += 2)
        {
            UIntType stop = cast(uint) sqrt(cast(double) candidate);
            foreach (e; found)
            {
                if (e > stop) break;
                if (candidate % e == 0) continue outer;
            }
            // found!
            found ~= candidate;
            break;
        }
    }

    enum bool empty = false;
}

unittest
{
    foreach (e; take(10, Primes!(uint)())) writeln(e);
}
+/
